5 Anthropology Questions At a Page each Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

5 Anthropology Questions At a Page each - Essay Example Therefore, the women who believe in God strongly as the sole provider of the child would voluntarily accept to bear other children. This might be contrary to their ability to take care of the children. New findings have revealed that contemporary women are concerned with the number of children they bear; depending on the responsibility one has (Joralemon 25). Therefore, in using the findings, to improve the quality of the birthing experience for women, they should be advised to give birth to the number of children that they can raise well. When comparing two medical systems, for instance, the American Medical System and the Canadian Medical system, there are specific issues, which the researcher would study. First, the quality of medical care offered at each system is probably the most important issue central to the study (Joralemon 45). The researcher would base his/her recommendations on the number of patients under each system and the morbidity and mortality rates. Essentially, this would give a reflection on the quality of health care that the system guarantees. Secondly, the efficiency with which each system is managed or medical duties executed are also examined, to give an overview of the differences in the method that each uses (Joralemon 52). Also, the nature of responsibility is studied to establish the way the medical staff attends to the patients under each system (Joralemon 59). This criterion of study would help the researcher to know the best medical system and the reasons for this. In studying each medical system, the following steps have to be followed; first, setting of objectives, then methodology of study is clarified. This is followed by data collection and presentation, analysis and making recommendations. The barriers that the researcher is likely to face include lack of corporation from the medical staff,

EXAM PREPARATION (MARKETING RESEARCH) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

EXAM PREPARATION (MARKETING RESEARCH) - Essay Example For a company that wants to differentiate its existing products or to innovate, the marketing department has to conduct exploratory research. With this research design, the marketing department will see how its customers respond to these new products in terms of their attitudes to buy these products or their feedback about its features, quality and utility etc. Most innovative firms such as Apple, Microsoft, Cisco, Vodafone etc almost always used exploratory research design to further discover new ideas. Apple Inc used exploratory research to develop iPod, by learning about how consumers wanted a portable device that could play favorite songs with increased volume quality and with ample storage capacity. Exploratory marketing research can help the researcher identify strategic management practices, financial or auditing approaches, marketing opportunities that may lead the company to achieve competitive advantage etc. Basically, the exploratory research is to provide the researcher w ith preliminary information about the problem or the opportunity to be studied. Descriptive research design attempts to obtain data that can describe the characteristics of the topic of interest in the research. Descriptive research is mainly designed to help the researcher to determine the frequency with which some incident occurs or to determine the relationship between two variables. This type of research is relatively rigid in nature, because the researcher assumes certain underlying characteristics of the market or he has some precise question of the statement of the research. Marketing management of a company may have to study about seasonal trends that affect their marketing. Descriptive research is the appropriate design for this type of research. Descriptive research is frequently used by companies to segment the potential market. With segmentation, the marketer initially identifies

Alcohol Problems And Law In The Uk Criminology Essay

Alcohol Problems And Law In The Uk Criminology Essay Alcohol has been associated with numerous health and social problems for centuries but it is only in recent years that the extent of such problems has been quantified. According to World Health Organisation it is estimated that alcohol is the fourth leading risk factor for death and disability globally, almost at par with tobacco. The UK has one of the biggest alcohol problems in Europe. New and significant changes in drinking patterns have developed in Britain over the last twenty years, leading to growing concerns that we are placing our health and well being at greater risk of harm from alcohol. The creation of a culture of drinking to get drunk or binge drinking is seen as the most significant causal factor of alcohol dependency and alcohol fuelled crimes  [5]  . Crime committed by drunken individuals is an ongoing serious problem for not only the police, but for the public and victims who have to deal with the sometimes terrible consequences of offenders who commit crimes wh ilst under the influence of alcohol. For a number of years it has been a well known belief that alcohol is a major trigger in a lot of crimes that have been committed in England and Wales. Nevertheless it cannot be said that every person who drinks alcohol in an irresponsible manner will go on to commit a criminal offence as latest figures have proven that alcohol related crime is committed by a small minority of those people who consume alcohol irresponsibly  [6]  . The link between alcohol and crime has been greatly documented over the years  [7]  . Many believe that the potential consequences of intoxication such as heightened levels of aggression, and impaired cognitive functioning, may be risk factors in experiences of crime and disorder, whether in relation to being a victim or a perpetrator  [8]  . Alcohol dependant people are over represented in prison populations all over England and Wales compared with the general population  [9]  . There are also a growing proportion of alcohol dependant offenders who have committed crime whilst under the influence of alcohol, which in turn leads to numerous reports that alcohol clearly seems to be a strong causative factor in a huge number of crimes committed against the person  [10]  . The Criminal Justice System in England and Wales is very much burdened with alcohol related crime. It is estimated that these crimes cost the UK between  £8 and 13 billion pound per year  [11]  . The costs include Cost to the Criminal Justice System  £1.8 billion Costs to services as consequence of alcohol related crime  £3.5 billion Costs to services in anticipation of alcohol related crime  £1.5 billion Human costs of alcohol related crime  £4.7 billion  [12]  . The Licensing Act 2003 which came into force at the end of November 2005 abolished set licensing hours in England and Wales  [13]  . The overall aim of the Licensing Act 2003 was to liberalise a rigid system whilst reducing the problems of drinking and disorder associated with a standard closing time  [14]  . It was also hoped that the Licensing Act 2003 coupled with other government initiatives would help to bring about a more benign drinking culture  [15]  . The Licensing Act 2003 has been the subject of much controversy  [16]  . Although its aim was specifically to address problems associated with late night drinking, in the run up to implementation it was presented by some of the media drunkards charter, whereby alcohol would be on sale 24 hours a day  [17]  . The major concern by the public and the police was that it would have a major effect on crime and disorder  [18]  . The Licensing Act 2003 passed on more responsibilities to the local authorities, also replacing the statutory licensing hours with opening hours set locally through the conditions of individual licenses  [19]  . The new licensing authorities were expected to grant the licenses requested by licensees; unless it was proven that the Acts four objectives were not being promoted  [20]  . The four objectives are The prevention of crime and disorder Public safety The prevention of public nuisance The protection of children from harm  [21]  . It became obvious and understandable that most of the general public were not in favour of the new licensing hour, and were fearful of the impact it would have not just on themselves, but on their communities and towns. During the first year after the Act  [22]  came into force, they seemed to be hardly any change in alcohol related offences, Murder, manslaughter, and serious wounding had fallen by 5 percent over the evening and night time periods in the twelve months after the Licensing Act 2003 came into force  [23]  . However there was an increase in the small numbers of these crimes happening between 3am and 6am  [24]  . The category of offences which included less serious offences of wounding and assaults with no injury rose from November 2004 until November 2005  [25]  . Offences of harassment showed a steady increase from November 2004 until November 2005 and then plateaued  [26]  . Criminal damage offences fell by 1 percent in the year after the change   [27]  . However whilst there was larger falls in the number of offences during the daytime, there was a 2 percent increase during the evening and night time periods which amounted to a 14 percent increase  [28]  . However there was another report by The Home Office compared the data from 30 different police forces between November 2005 to December 2006 to see again how the Licensing Act 2003 had affected crime and disorder  [29]  . The results were; A 1% rise in the overall number of violent crimes, disorder and criminal damage incidents occurring between 6pm and 6am A 22% rise between 3am and 6am in the 3 month period after the law had changed A 25% increase in serious violent crimes committed between 3am and 6am  [30]  . There were many qualitative interviews conducted by Home Office researchers of licensing authority staff and those from responsible authorities were fairly consistent: most respondents described problems of crime and disorder associated with the night time economy as stable or declining  [31]  . However most reported that this was nothing to do with the changes brought about by the Licensing Act 2003  [32]  . Unless every police station completed a report on the exact alcohol related crime figures since the Licensing Act 2003 came into force then the impact remains vague. Since the Act  [33]  came into force, the pressure of many police officers has increased, mainly because people are getting drunk at all different times of the day and night, therefore the police are dealing with drunk people and alcohol related crimes for longer periods of time, due to bars and clubs being open for longer hours. The Licensing Act 2003 was intended to make it easier for responsible authorities and local residents to call for the local authority to review a licence  [34]  . Between April 2006 and March 2007 ninety two licences were revoked  [35]  . In 2007 the government introduced some strategies and guidance; safe, sensible and social, for help in trying to reduce alcohol related crime  [36]  . The strategy endeavoured to deliver three important points; To ensure that the laws and licensing powers in the UK help to protect young people and bear down on irresponsibly run premises, and are being used widely and effectively (Enforcement) To promote an environment which encourages sensible drinking through investment in better information and communications (Education and Prevention) To ensure that there is a greater focus on the minority of drinkers who cause or experience most harm to themselves, their communities and their families (Treatment and Aftercare)  [37]  . Although other legislation has been introduced to help assist the police in their aim to reduce alcohol related crime, for example; penalty notices for disorder, drinking banning orders, directions to leave and licensed premises closure orders, it is more resources that are needed to help reduce alcohol fuelled crime  [38]  . Although the police have had increased powers to deal with drunken offenders, they still cannot seem to decrease the amount of alcohol related crime  [39]  . In 2006 the Violent Crime Reduction Act was introduced, which introduced new measures to ensure that police and local communities have the powers they need to tackle violent crimes including alcohol related crime  [40]  . However this did not seem to have a positive effect on crime reduction either. Many offenders of alcohol related crime do not seem to be habitual offenders; many will have only one encounter with the criminal justice system  [41]  . However some offenders are arrested repeatedly for alcohol related offences. Mechanisms for identifying why they reoffend and referring them for help are haphazard, meaning that they continue offending to their own detriment and that of society, whilst also taking up criminal justice resources  [42]  . With pubs and bars open for longer hours during the day and night then this cannot be helpful in any way to help reduce the crime rate fuelled by alcohol. Many have argued that the alcohol industry has a vital role in helping to prevent and tackle the harms caused by alcohol misuse  [43]  . However many would also agree with the fact that the alcohol industry do not do enough to try and help reduce alcohol related crime. Many different organisations can be classed as being responsible for reducing crime, including the offe nder himself and his family, however the alcohol industry are in control of how they advertise their alcohol, how it is packaged and how it is promoted. The alcohol industry should be working hard to help and if this means going beyond their statutory responsibilities then so be it. Since 2006 the challenge 21 scheme has been fairly successful in raising awareness among publicans and their staff of the need to be vigilant in preventing underage sales  [44]  . Pubs are now turning away over one million underage customers each month who, when challenged were unable to provide acceptable proof of their age, this clearly indicates that the trade is making a bigger effort to enforce the law and prevent under age sales of alcohol  [45]  . Challenge 25 gives more staff a wider margin of protection, as if the customer looks under 25 then the staff can ask for proof that they are over 18. In 2009 Britains drink industry announced a one million social marketing campaign aimed at encou raging more responsible drinking amongst young adults and shifting attitudes towards drunkenness  [46]  . Supermarkets are also a contributing factor towards alcohol related crime due to their ability to sell alcohol at hugely reduced costs. Bars and clubs have to sell alcohol at a certain price, however supermarkets can afford to lower the price of alcohol, and nearly every supermarket has numerous offers on their alcohol, for example, 3 bottles of wine for  £10 and numerous cans of lager for a low price. Therefore many people are drinking more at home, and many people are also drinking more before going out due to the low prices in supermarkets. Statistics in 2010 show that; 7,800 premises have 24 hour licenses, of which; 4,400 are hotel bars 1,700 are supermarkets or shops 1,000 are pubs, bars and nightclubs 800 are other premises  [47]  . The above statistics have been a concern for the police and the general public. Previous to the Licensing Act 2003 most of the above establishments shut at 11pm, this in fact meant that there was a rise in assaults and antisocial behaviour because people were fighting and arguing as they were leaving the bars and clubs  [48]  . However with 24 hour licenses in place, brawls and fighting are not just happening at 11pm, they are happening at all hours of the day and night. Therefore alcohol consumption seems to have risen since the introduction of the Licensing Act 2003. The government claimed that the Licensing Act 2003 would help to reduce binge drinking as well as alcohol related crime. This seemed quite an absurd and unlikely claim, due to the face that for people that want to binge drink, bars and clubs will be open longer. With bars and clubs staying open for longer periods of time, then people are no less likely to binge drink than before the Licensing Act 2003 came into force. An array of modern alcohol products and marketing strategies are especially designed to encourage and exploit the binge drinking culture  [49]  . A large segment of the pub sector appears to operate on the basis of pack them in, get them drunk, and chuck them out  [50]  . Speed drinking bars have also become very popular with binge drinkers, with a lot of bars now charging only  £15.00 for unlimited alcohol all night  [51]  . However in 2009 there were strict conditions included in a new mandatory code on alcohol sales launched for consultation by Home Sec retary at the time Jacqui Smith  [52]  . Therefore these drink all you want promotions were banned. More and more young people are being targeted to drink alcohol every year. Alcohol industries have even admitted that they have to now compete with any other psychoactive products, hence the developments such as; Inventing a new range of designer drinks to appeal specifically to young people Increasing the strength of alcohol products targeted at the young Marketing alcohol to young people on the basis of its psychoactive properties and hedonistic appeal  [53]  . There seems to be nothing whatsoever in the above to justify regarding the abolition of fixed closing times as a key mechanism for reducing binge drinking  [54]  . Longer drinking hours has in fact given the binge drinking pattern of consumption more scope and encouragement  [55]  . However the government have been known to disagree with the above statement. The government have claimed that since the Licensing Act 2003 came into force, binge drinking has reduced considerably. The governments claims are completely unqualified  [56]  . There is no evidence to prove their claim, and is ironic for the government to claim such things with no evidence, especially as they state that one of the basic requirements for of the national harm reduction strategy is that it will be evidence based  [57]  . Recent surveys of young adults aged between 18 and 24 concluded that a big percentage of them had committed a crime in the twelve months previous due to having been binge drinking at the time of the offence. The survey also found that young adults who got very drunk at least once a week were almost seven times as likely to admit to criminal damage, five times as likely to admit to fighting, and four times as likely to become involved in an argument than those who got drunk less than once a month  [58]  . Prevention of alcohol related crime over the past decade has been somewhat confusing and misguided as to the actual help and effect on the overall decrease in the problem that it has. People drink alcohol for many different reasons; clinical professionals have often been in disagreement with each other of how to tackle alcohol related crimes. For many individuals there are underlying problems that lead someone to alcohol, and that leads someone to be alcohol dependant. The government seem to be very quick at placing the blame on others apart from themselves. Since the Licensing Act 2003 the NHS has seen a lot more admissions of patients with serious problems from drinking too much alcohol whether it is from assaults or from liver disease and other physical illnesses from alcohol. The government have done absolutely nothing over the past few years to make alcohol drinks less affordable. Alcohol is more widely available and cheaper than it has been since the 1970s  [59]  . The purc hase of alcoholic drinks by UK households has risen ten percent in a year. In the last decade there has been a fifty percent increase of people drinking at home; this is an awful lot of drinking for children to be witnessing  [60]  . Alcohol is now even stronger than it used to be. Surely one would ascertain that if the price of alcohol rose then this would help in decreasing alcohol related offences. Alcohol companies could actually do extra in helping the government to control and decrease the problems when dealing with alcohol and its ever growing increase in younger people seeing alcohol as escapism but not realising the risks and consequences that alcohol can have on their body, mind and life. The alcohol firms did come to some kind of agreement with the government a few years ago in which they said that by the end of 2008 they would label the majority of alcohol drinks with information about the number of units contained in the drink, the recommended sensible drinking guid elines for men and women, and the website address for the drinkaware trust  [61]  . However very few companies complied with this, and just 50 percent of all drinks actually carry any warnings  [62]  . However it has to be recognised that more and more adverts are appearing on our television screens each year regarding the dangers of drinking too much alcohol. Nearly every advert that advertisers alcohol has a warning and the name of the drinkaware website on the screen; this is a good improvement over the last few years. Preventing alcohol related crime is also an ongoing problem for the police. Whilst alcohol related health and social problems amongst youths are increasing internationally, both consumption and associated harms are particularly high in British youths  [63]  . Alcohol related crime is also taking the police away from dealing with more serious crimes. The British youths of today are consuming alcohol more frequently than any other generation. Binge drinking and peer group pressure are amongst the main concerns for schoolchildren. Most youths and unfortunately children are drinking in public places, for example, street corners and parks, outside youth clubs and even in their own homes. With habits and pressures like these there is a high rise in the amount of acute violence and long term alcohol dependence  [64]  . In a statement made by a chief inspector of a police station in London, it was stated that the police concern is that there are already too many people leaving licens ed premises, particularly after 1.00am, and any more will place a burden on the area and add to the existing crime and disorder  [65]  . Since this statement was made it appears that problems of drunkenness, crime and disorder have increased in the West end of London as hours of trading have been extended  [66]  . An analysis of the criminal offences in relation to licensed premises in West End Central found that in 2000 the peak time for violent offences was 1.00am, and the report concluded that the crime in and around the direct vicinity of licensed premises is occurring at later hours due to the extended licensing hours  [67]  . The evaluation of the Home Office report clearly indicates that the impact of the Act in its first year of operation brought fewer problems than were feared by pessimists, and fewer benefits than expected by optimists  [68]  . There are three explanations for the findings; one is that the new licensing regime has not significantly changed patterns of drinking; the second is that there have been significant changes to drinking patterns, but that these changes have not led to more crime and disorder; the third is that extraneous factors have had a bigger impact than the changes to licensing hours  [69]  . The UK has witnessed significant alcohol cultural changes over the last decade. Young women are especially drinking more, and binge drinking seems to be a popular pastime for the youngsters of today. It is a major fear when teenagers are beginning their drinking careers at increasingly younger ages. Ten years ago it was the age range of 15 to 16 year olds that were drinking alcohol frequently, now figures have shown that children as young as 9 and 10 are being introduced to alcohol, and are also drinking twice the amount that younger people drank ten years ago. Alcohol fuelled domestic violence seems to have been overlooked by the crime statistics in every year since the Licensing Act 2003 came into force because when domestic violence through alcohol is reported, it is not classed as a alcohol related crime  [70]  . Alcohol is one of the main factors that contribute to domestic violence. It is extremely obvious that more needs to be done to achieve a vast reduction in alcohol re lated crime. The government have set out various conditions and legislation but it seems that the alcohol industry and supermarkets are not one hundred percent in favour of making our streets much safer by helping to reduce alcohol fuelled crime. Therefore if we as a country are sincere in wanting to reduce alcohol related crimes then perhaps a more tactical effect would be best achieved by starting with the businesses that are accountable for supplying alcohol to the public. Many bars and nightclubs sell soft drinks, water and non alcoholic beverages; however it is normally the case that soft drinks are more expensive than the alcoholic drinks. People who commit crimes whilst drunk are more often than not in need of help or counselling for their excessive drinking. This kind of help is never easy to achieve, and with most perpetrators of crime leaving the police station with just a warning then is it any wonder that they are most likely going to commit another crime once they have had some more alcohol. Harsher penalties should be given. In recent years numerous young adults have been interviewed about what their view is on how alcohol related crime can be decreased. The majority of the individuals stated that more should be done to try and moderate consumption of alcohol; however nobody can force someone to stop drinking. Many suggestions centred on licensed premises and what could be done within them to discourage excessive drinking and promote more moderate drinking  [71]  . Bar staff should perhaps be trained more effectively so that they know when someone has had enough alcohol therefore discouraging the person to not drink anymore. With more and more premises every year opening for longer hours it seems that people are being tempted to drink more. Non-alcoholic drinks should certainly cost less than alcoholic drinks. It seems that every year bars and clubs are offering new promotions to encourage people to drink more, alcoholic drinks such as shots are the new craze at the moment, and are normally fairly cheap to buy if not free with your first drink.. With information such as this then there is nothing to suggest that the Licensing Act 2003 has had any positive impact on helping to reduce the crimes that are committed whilst people are under the influence of alcohol. Prevention is paramount; therefore educating children in secondary schools of the dangers of consuming alcohol should be of major importance  [72]  . Many schools educate youngsters about the dangers of taking drugs, so why doesnt educating children of the risks caused by drinking alcohol taking place in our schools  [73]  . Alcohol did not seem to be a major problem regarding crime over ten years ago. The odd fight or criminal damage was sometimes fuelled by alcohol but there was not as near the problems our country has today. Many people are still of the opinion that the Licensing Act 2003 was completely non affective and that the government really need to readdress certain issues regarding the alcohol industry, so that maybe our drinks culture would not be so appealing  [74]  . Not every individual who consumes alcohol can be convinced to drink less, however if tougher sentences were given for the perpetrators of alcohol related crime then maybe this would make the offender think twice before having that next drink. total words 3968

The Persian Gulf War Was NOT Iraqs Fault :: essays research papers fc

At 2:00 A.M. (local time) on August second 1990, Saddam Hussein sent the Iraqi military across the border into Kuwait, and sparked a war whose repercussions are still being felt. Today what eventually became known as the Persian Gulf War, featured the largest air operation in history; and a senseless destruction paralleled only to Danzig or Hiroshima. Even though Saddam was the one who physically invaded Kuwait, is balking at United Nations resolutions, and is generally known as a tyrant. He should not be destroyed . The Gulf War was nothing more than the United States attempting to establish, as former President Bush so aptly termed, the â€Å"New Order†. The United States supported Saddam Hussein and the Ba’ath regime prior to the Kuwaiti invasion. They even gave Saddam a â€Å"Green Light† to go ahead and invade. If Saddam were to leave power Iraq would either be plunged into a Lebanon style civil war or face another ruler no better than Saddam himself. The United States is contemplating another invasion of Iraq, however it is having a difficult time of gaining support of the Arab countries. While many people in this country believe Saddam Hussein should be destroyed, that he is a totalitarian dictator and gross human rights violator. He is, in fact, a stabilizing force in his country and the Middle-East, standing up to the only remaining superpower. The consensus currently prevalent in this country is that Saddam Hussein, the leader of Iraq, is a totalitarian dictator, thirsty for blood and prestige, who seems dedicated to disobeying the United States. It would seem Iraq is intent on keeping United Nation inspectors out of its own country, although technically â€Å"Iraq barred only American members of the inspection teams from carrying on their work†(Nelan 54). The Iraqi â€Å"Dictator† seems to have decided he would rather be bombed than inspected. He apparently has no regard for the international community, and yet still wants them to lift sanctions. Also the Iraqi: â€Å"government stopped Ritter from investigating sensitive sites, calling him a spy and complaining that his team was too ‘Anglo-American’... the Iraqis also revealed Ritter was looking for evidence Iraq tested chemical and biological weapons on humans - charge Baghdad called ‘a shear lie’† (Watson 34). Those reports of human testing are obviously false. â€Å"[E]ven Saddams strongest foes, including the C.I.A. seems to doubt them(Watson 34)†. In fact, the only testing done by Iraq was on dogs. There were no inspectors around when the U.S. committed the crimes at Tuskegee, or when hundreds of servicemen were exposed to radiation during the atomic tests in the sixties. The Iraqi â€Å"dictator† has stayed in power for some 6 years since sanctions were imposed.

Pricing Strategies Essay

Definition Pricing is a powerful element of a small business’s marketing strategy. The pricing structure of your products and services, and how it relates to your competitors’ pricing strategies and the expectations of consumers, play an important role in creating an image for your company and establishing a specific customer base. An analysis of pricing strategy reveals that companies have a range of options in their pricing toolkit they can use to augment their marketing initiatives. Pricing strategy refers to method companies use to price their products or services. Almost all companies, large or small, base the price of their products and services on production, labor and advertising expenses and then add on a certain percentage so they can make a profit. There are several different pricing strategies, such as penetration pricing, price skimming, discount pricing, product life cycle pricing and even competitive pricing. Different Types of Pricing Strategies Penetration Pricing A small company that uses penetration pricing typically sets a low price for its product or service in hopes of building market share, which is the percentage of sales a company has in the market versus total sales. The primary objective of penetration pricing is to garner lots of customers with low prices and then use various marketing strategies to retain them. For example, a small Internet software distributor may set a low price for its products and subsequently email customers with additional software product offers every month. A small company will work hard to serve these customers to build brand loyalty among them. Price Skimming Another type of pricing strategy is price skimming, in which a company sets its prices high to quickly recover expenditures for product production and advertising. The key objective of a price skimming strategy is to achieve a profit quickly. Companies often use price skimming when they lack financial resources to produce products in volume, according to the article â€Å"Pricing Strategy† at NetMBA.com. Instead, the company will use the quick spurts of cash to finance additional product production and advertising. Product Life Cycle Pricing All products have a life span, called product life cycle. A product gradually progresses through different stages in the cycle: introduction, growth, maturity and decline stages. During the growth stage, when sales are booming, a small company usually will keep prices higher. For example, if the company’s product is unique or of higher quality than competitive products, customers will likely pay the higher price. A company that prices its products high in the growth stage also may have a new technology that is in high demand. Competitive-Based Pricing There are times when a small company may have to lower its price to meet the prices of competitors. A competitive-based pricing strategy may be employed when there is little difference between products in an industry. For example, when people purchase paper plates or foam cups or a picnic, they often shop for the lowest price when there is minimal product differentiation. Consequently, a small paper company may need to price its products lower or lose potential sales. Temporary Discount Pricing Small companies also may use temporary discounts to increase sales. Temporary discount pricing strategies include coupons, cents-off sales, seasonal price reductions and even volume purchases. For example, a small clothing manufacturer may offer seasonal price reductions after the holidays to reduce product inventory. A volume discount may include a buy-two-get-one-free promotion. Cost-Plus pricing Cost-plus pricing is the simplest pricing method. The firm calculates the cost of producing the product and adds on a percentage (profit) to that price to give the selling price. This method although simple has two flaws; it takes no account of demand and there is no way of determining if potential customers will purchase the product at the calculated price. This appears in two forms, full cost pricing which takes into consideration both variable and fixed costs and adds a percentage as markup. The other is direct cost pricing which is variable costs plus a percentage as markup. The latter is only used in periods of high competition as this method usually leads to a loss in the long run. Limit pricing A limit price is the price set by a monopolist to discourage economic entry into a market, and is illegal in many countries. The limit price is the price that the entrant would face upon entering as long as the incumbent firm did not decrease output. The limit price is often lower than the average cost of production or just low enough to make entering not profitable. The quantity produced by the incumbent firm to act as a deterrent to entry is usually larger than would be optimal for a monopolist, but might still produce higher economic profits than would be earned under perfect competition. The problem with limit pricing as a strategy is that once the entrant has entered the market, the quantity used as a threat to deter entry is no longer the incumbent firm’s best response. This means that for limit pricing to be an effective deterrent to entry, the threat must in some way be made credible. A way to achieve this is for the incumbent firm to constrain itself to produce a certain quantity whether entry occurs or not. An example of this would be if the firm signed a union contract to employ a certain (high) level of labor for a long period of time. In this strategy price of the product becomes the limit according to budget. Loss leader A loss leader or leader is a product sold at a low price (i.e. at cost or below cost) to stimulate other profitable sales. This would help the companies to expand its market share as a whole. Market-oriented pricing Setting a price based upon analysis and research compiled from the target market. This means that marketers will set prices depending on the results from the research. For instance if the competitors are pricing their products at a lower price, then it’s up to them to either price their goods at an above price or below, depending on what the company wants to achieve. Price discrimination Price discrimination is the practice of setting a different price for the same product in different segments to the market. For example, this can be for different classes, such as ages, or for different opening times. Premium pricing Premium pricing is the practice of keeping the price of a product or service artificially high in order to encourage favorable perceptions among buyers, based solely on the price. The practice is intended to exploit the (not necessarily justifiable) tendency for buyers to assume that expensive items enjoy an exceptional reputation, are more reliable or desirable, or represent exceptional quality and distinction. Predatory pricing Predatory pricing, also known as aggressive pricing (also known as â€Å"undercutting†), intended to drive out competitors from a market. It is illegal in some countries. Contribution margin-based pricing Contribution margin-based pricing maximizes the profit derived from an individual product, based on the difference between the product’s price and variable costs (the product’s contribution margin per unit), and on one’s assumptions regarding the relationship between the product’s price and the number of units that can be sold at that price. The product’s contribution to total firm profit (i.e. to operating income) is maximized when a price is chosen that maximizes the following: (contribution margin per unit) X (number of units sold). Psychological pricing Pricing designed to have a positive psychological impact. For example, selling a product at $3.95 or $3.99, rather than $4.00. There are certain price points where people are willing to buy a product. If the price of a product is $100 and the company prices it as $99, then it is called psychological pricing. In most of the consumers mind $99 is psychologically ‘less’ than $100. A minor distinction in pricing can make a big difference is sales. The company that succeeds in finding psychological price points can improve sales and maximize revenue Dynamic pricing A flexible pricing mechanism made possible by advances in information technology, and employed mostly by Internet based companies. By responding to market fluctuations or large amounts of data gathered from customers – ranging from where they live to what they buy to how much they have spent on past purchases – dynamic pricing allows online companies to adjust the prices of identical goods to correspond to a customer’s willingness to pay. The airline industry is often cited as a dynamic pricing success story. In fact, it employs the technique so artfully that most of the passengers on any given airplane have paid different ticket prices for the same flight. Price leadership An observation made of oligopolistic business behavior in which one company, usually the dominant competitor among several, leads the way in determining prices, the others soon following. The context is a state of limited competition, in which a market is shared by a small number of producers or sellers. Target pricing Pricing method whereby the selling price of a product is calculated to produce a particular rate of return on investment for a specific volume of production. The target pricing method is used most often by public utilities, like electric and gas companies, and companies whose capital investment is high, like automobile manufacturers. Target pricing is not useful for companies whose capital investment is low because, according to this formula, the selling price will be understated. Also the target pricing method is not keyed to the demand for the product, and if the entire volume is not sold, a company might sustain an overall budgetary loss on the product. Absorption pricing Method of pricing in which all costs are recovered. The price of the product includes the variable cost of each item plus a proportionate amount of the fixed costs and is a form of cost-plus pricing High-low pricing Method of pricing for an organization where the goods or services offered by the organization are regularly priced higher than competitors, but through promotions, advertisements, and or coupons, lower prices are offered on key items. The lower promotional prices are designed to bring customers to the organization where the customer is offered the promotional product as well as the regular higher priced products. Premium decoy pricing Method of pricing where an organization artificially sets one product price high, in order to boost sales of a lower priced product. Marginal-cost pricing In business, the practice of setting the price of a product to equal the extra cost of producing an extra unit of output. By this policy, a producer charges, for each product unit sold, only the addition to total cost resulting from materials and direct labor. Businesses often set prices close to marginal cost during periods of poor sales. If, for example, an item has a marginal cost of $1.00 and a normal selling price is $2.00, the firm selling the item might wish to lower the price to $1.10 if demand has waned. The business would choose this approach because the incremental profit of 10 cents from the transaction is better than no sale at all. Value-based pricing Pricing a product based on the value the product has for the customer and not on its costs of production or any other factor. This pricing strategy is frequently used where the value to the customer is many times the cost of producing the item or service. For instance, the cost of producing a software CD is about the same independent of the software on it, but the prices vary with the perceived value the customers are expected to have. The perceived value will depend on the alternatives open to the customer. In business these alternatives are using competitors software, using a manual work around, or not doing an activity. In order to employ value-based pricing you have to know your customer’s business, his business costs, and his perceived alternatives. Pay what you want Pay what you want is a pricing system where buyers pay any desired amount for a given commodity, sometimes including zero. In some cases, a minimum (floor) price may be set, and/or a suggested price may be indicated as guidance for the buyer. The buyer can also select an amount higher than the standard price for the commodity. Giving buyers the freedom to pay what they want may seem to not make much sense for a seller, but in some situations it can be very successful. While most uses of pay what you want have been at the margins of the economy, or for special promotions, there are emerging efforts to expand its utility to broader and more regular use. Freemium Freemium is a business model that works by offering a product or service free of charge (typically digital offerings such as software, content, games, web services or other) while charging a premium for advanced features, functionality, or related products and services. The word â€Å"freemium† is a portmanteau combining the two aspects of the business model: â€Å"free† and â€Å"premium†. It has become a highly popular model, with notable success. Odd pricing In this type of pricing, the seller tends to fix a price whose last digits are odd numbers. This is done so as to give the buyers/consumers no gap for bargaining as the prices seem to be less and yet in an actual sense are too high, and takes advantage of human psychology. A good example of this can be noticed in most supermarkets where instead of pricing at $10, it would be written as $9.99. This pricing policy is common in economies using the free market policy. Decoy pricing Method of pricing where the seller offers at least three products, and where two of them have a similar or equal price. The two products with the similar prices should be the most expensive ones, and one of the two should be less attractive then the other. This strategy will make people compare the options with similar prices, and as a result sales of the most attractive choice will increase. Conclusion Pricing strategies for products or services encompass three main ways to improve profits. These are that the business owner can cut costs or sell more, or find more profit with a better pricing strategy. When costs are already at their lowest and sales are hard to find, adopting a better pricing strategy is a key option to stay viable. Merely raising prices is not always the answer, especially in a poor economy. Many businesses have been lost because they priced themselves out of the marketplace. On the other hand, many business and sales staff leave â€Å"money on the table†. One strategy does not fit all, so adopting a pricing strategy is a learning curve when studying the needs and behaviors of customers and clients. Bibliography 1. The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing: A Guide to Growing More Profitably by Thomas Nagle 2. Power Pricing: How Managing Price Transforms the Bottom Line by Robert J. Dolan 3. http://sixrevisions.com/project-management/pricing-strategies-research/ 4. http://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/salesmarketing/a/pricingstrategy_2.htm

Synthesis of Salicylic Acid and Potentiometric Determination of Its Purity and Dissociation Constant

Synthesis of Salicylic Acid and Potentiometric Determination of its Purity and Dissociation Constant ————————————————- Abstract The purpose of the study is to synthesize salicylic acid from the ester, methyl salicylate, and determine the acid’s dissociation constant and purity. The ester was converted to salicylic acid by base hydrolysis. The products were refluxed and recrystallized, to ensure maximum purity, and filtered, dried, and weighed. The melting point of the product was determined using a Fischer-Johns melting point apparatus. The acid then dissolved in separate beakers with 95% ethanol and water and titrated with 0. 050 M NaOH, previously standardized with potassium hydrogen phthalate, through potentiometric titration. The pH after addition of base was measured and plotted against the volume of titrant added using three different plots. Results show a 61. 0% yield and the melting point differed from the theoretical by a range of 3. 11-6. 83%. The pKa calculated was 2. 865, differing from the literature value of 2. 98, by 3. 86%. The theoretical purity of the sample was 100. 0%, which differed with the experimental one by 1. %; the experimental purity is 101. 7%. Potentiometric titration proves to be adequate in the determination of the acid dissociation constant and purity of a sample. Aside from that, the synthesis proved adequate given the high purity of the product. ————————————————- Keywords : acid dissociation constant purity melting point ester INTRODUCTION Potentiometric methods of analysis are based on measuring the potential of electrochemical cells without drawing much, appreciable current. For centuries, potentiometry has been used to locate the endpoint in most titration set-ups. Skoog, et al. , 2004). Potentiometric methods offer a myriad of advantages, its main advantage being its low operational costs. Voltmeters and electrodes are, generally, far cheaper than most modern scientific instruments. Models suitable for direct potentiometry in field work, away from the laboratory, are inexpensive, compact, and easy to use. Essentially nondestructive of the sample, i. e. , insertion of the electrode does not drastically change the composition of the test solution (except for the slight leakage of electrolytes from the reference electrode), electrodes are relatively free from interferences. Stable potential readings are attained fairly rapidly and voltages are easily recorded as functions of time. Finally, the wide range of analyte activities, over which some of the available indicator electrodes exhibit stable, nearly Nernstian responses, represents an important advantage (Day and Underwood, 1991). Potentiometric titrations involve measurement of the potential of a suitable indicator electrode as a function of titrant volume. This indicator electrode is speecific to the hydronium ion, H3O+. It offers adavantages over direct potentiometry in that it is not dependent on measuring absolute values of Ecell. This is due to having the measurement based on the titrant volume that causes a rapid change in potential near the equivalence point. This makes the process relatively free from the juction potential uncertainties as this potential remains approximately constant during the titration process. Instead, the titration results depend heavily on having a titrant with accurately known concentration. The instrument merely signals the endpoint and behaves like a regular chemical indicator. Aside from that, the reference electrode potential need not be known. Most importantly, ionic strength effects are not important in the titration procedure because the result is analyte concentration, even if the electrode responds to activities. The dissociation of a weak monoprotic acid is given by the equation HA – H+ + A– (1) [H+][A–] [HA] where HA is the monoprotic acid, and A– is its conjugate base. The corresponding equilibrium constant for this acid dissociation is defined as Ka = (2) Ka[HA] [A–] which, when seeking to find [H+], rearranges to [H+] = (3) Prior to the equivalence point, before any titrant was added and the analyte is the only species present in solution, the pH of the system is calculated from the concentration of that analyte and its dissociation constant. In the case where a weak monoprotic acid is being titrated with a strong base, subsequent addition of the titrant will cause a reaction to occur between the acid and the base. HA + OH– > H2O + A– (4) The presence of the acid and its conjugate base in solution will cause the formation of a buffer solution, which are solutions that resist a drastic change in pH, should a strong acid or base be added to the system. At these points, the slope of a constructed titration curve is at its minimum. This is the pre-equivalence point. There is a point during the pre-equivalence point region wherein both the acid and its conjugate base are present in equal amounts. This occurs when half of the acid has been neutralized, or when the titration is at the half-equivalence point. At this point, the buffering capacity of the system is at its maximum. Aside from that, simplifying Eq. 3 at this point by inspection, the [H+] is equal to that of the Ka. Taking the negative of the logarithm of both sides, one will be able to get the relation pH = pKa (Skoog, et al. , 2004). Thus, the dissociation constant may be computed through determining the pH at half-equivalence point. This experiment will use salicylic acid as the analyte. Salicylic acid, Fig. 1. Salicylic acid is a weak monoprotic acid, capable of releasing the acidic hydrogen connected to the –COOH group. The hydrogen of the phenol group is hard to release because the oxygen is stabilized by resonance. Salicylic acid is a naturally occuring substance, usually produced by plants. It is found mainly in the willow's leaves and bark. The pure acid possesses several useful medicinal properties. It is an antipyretic (fever reducer), analgesic (pain reliever) and anti-inflammatory (swelling reducer). However, pure salicylic acid makes for an extremely unpleasant medicine. Salicylic acid contains two acidic functional groups, the phenolic (C6H5OH) and the carboxylic acid (RCOOH) groups. These groups cause the acid to be an irritating substance that burns the delicate lining of the mouth, throat, and stomach, hence its esterification to acetylsalicylic acid or aspirin, before ingestion as analgesic (Reed College, 2009). Esterificaton is the process by which a carboxylic acid is transformed to an ester. Esters are organic compounds that are derived usually by reacting a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. The general formula for esters is with the RC=O group derived from the parent carboxylic acid, and the –OR’ group from the parent alcohol. The mechanism for the reaction of the alcohol and carboxylic acid to form the ester is as follows: Fig. 2. Mechanism of Esterification from a Carboxylic acid RCOOH and alcohol R’OH Esters may also be synthesized by reacting the carboxylic acid with other reagents such as SOCl2 to form the acyl chloride, which will then be treated with an alcohol in pyridine, to esterify it. Esters are among the most widespread of all naturally occuring compounds. Many esters are pleasant-smelling liquids that are responsible for the fragrant odor of fruits and flowers. For example, methyl butanoate is found n pineapple oil and isopentyl acetate is a constituent of banana oil. The ester linkage is also present in animal fats and other biologically important molecules. The chemical industry also uses esters for a variety of purposes. Ethyl acetate, for example, is commonly used as a solvent while many dialkyl phthalates are used as plasticizers to keep polymers from being brittle (McMurry, 2004) . Methyl salicylate is produced by many plants. It was first isolated from wintergreen leaves, Gaulthea procumbens, and is commonly known as oil of wintergreen. Fig. 3. Methyl salicylate An ester of salicylic acid and methanol, it masks one of the acidic hydrogens in salicylic acid by replacing it with a methyl (CH3–) group. Hence, it is a relatively unreactive compound that does not release salicylic acid efficiently into the body. It is, therefore, not an effective analgesic, or pain-killer. However, it is added to many products, notably for its fragrance, especially root beer and liniments. In order for it to be activated, methyl salicylate must be converted to salicylic acid by organic synthesis, specifically through saponification, a process not unlike that undergone by animal fats to become soaps (McMurry, 2004). In this experiment, salicylic acid will be synthesized from methyl salicylate by base hydrolysis. Its dissociation constant will also be measured through potentiometric titration. Likewise, the percentage of purity the salicylic acid used in the reaction will be likewise determined. METHODOLOGY In synthesizing salicylic acid, 1. 2 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were dissolved in 7 mL water in a round bottom flask.. Half of a milliliter (0. 5 mL) of methyl salicylate was added to this mixture. The mixture was then efluxed for 15 minutes and cooled to room temperature. One-milliliter increments of 3 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were added until the formation of a white precipitate, salicylic acid. Half of a milliliter (0. 5 mL) of the acid was added to ensure complete precipitation of the product. The mixture was then cooled in an ice water bath with a temperature of at most 5 °C for the reaction to subside. The product was then filtered and rinsed with cold water, and recrystallized in wat er. The solids were then filtered on a pre-weighed filter paper and air-dried in the locker. When dried, the solids, along with the filter paper, were weighed and the melting point determined. Two hundred and fifty milliliters (250 mL) of 0. 50 M stock sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution was then prepared. From this solution, 250 mL of 0. 050 M standard solution was prepared for the titration. This solution was then standardized with 0. 2000 g 99. 95% potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) and phenolphthalein as indicator to the pale pink endpoint. Two more trials were done. Three samples of pure salicylic acid were weighed at approximately 0. 000 g and placed in three separate 250-mL beakers. A minimum amount of 95% ethanol was then added to dissolve the acid, and was diluted with 50. 00 mL distilled water. The electrode was first calibrated such that it would relate the developed potential to the pH. At this point, the potential would be measured as pH when increments of the titrant are successively added. The base burette, pH meter, and magnetic stirrer were set up according to Fig. 6. Fig. 6. Potentiometric titration set-up A spin bar was place inside the beaker with the sample solution. The electrode was also positioned such that it would not get hit with the spin bar. The pH of the set-up was first measured prior to addition of base. For the first trial, 1. 00 mL of the titrant was added to the analyte and the pH recorded. This was done until the pH was 11. 50. From there, the equivalence point was approximated based on the volume of the titrant that caused a large change in pH. For the two succeeding trials, 1. 00 mL of the titrant was added to the analyte. At  ±5. 00 mL of the equivalence point, the volume of titrant added was reduced to 0. 0 mL increments. At  ±3. 00 mL and  ±2. 00 mL of the equivalence point, it was further reduced to 0. 20 mL and 0. 10 mL, respectively. The titration contnued beyond 5. 00 mL of the equivalence point using 0. 50 mL of titrant until the pH registered was 11. 00. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Methyl salicylate reacts with a strong base in the following manner: Fig. 4. Base hydrolysis of methyl salicylate The methoxy group of the e ster is substituted by the hydroxide ion through nucleophilic acyl substitution. The hydroxide attaches itself to the carboxylic carbon. A fast proton transfer from the hydroxide to the methoxy group occurs such that the methoxy gets protonated and leaves the substrate. The sodium ions stabilize the negative charge of the salicylate ion predominantly found near the two oxygens of the ion. The solution was then refluxed to prevent loss of material and to prevent the inclusion of impurities in the product. After cooling to room temperature, 1. 00 mL of 3M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) until salicylic acid starts precipitating as a white solid. To complete the precipitation, 0. 50 mL of the strong acid was added to the mixture. At this point, the salicylate ion is protonated and the final product, salicylic acid, forms through the reaction: Fig. 5. Protonation of the phenolate and carboxylate groups of the salicylate ion The flask containing the precipitate was then doused in cold water to stop the reaction. Cold water was used in rinsing the solid after filtration to wash out impurities that were insoluble in the solvent. The solid was recrystallized in hot water. Dissolving the solids in hot water generally increases the solubility of the substances, hence the solids dissolve along with the soluble impurities. The mixture was then allowed to cool slowly. As the solution cools, the solubility of the compound (and of the soluble impurities) decreases, the solution becomes saturated with the desired compound, and the compound begins to crystallize. Because formation of crystals is a highly selective process that usually excludes foreign molecules, only crystals of the desired compound form. Because the soluble impurities are present in smaller amounts, the solution never becomes saturated with the impurities, so the impurities remain in solution even after the solution has cooled. Removing the solution from the crystals thus removes the solvent and the soluble impurities from the desired crystals. A final rinse of minimum ice water ensures the displacement of the impurities still clinging on the surface of the product (â€Å"Recrystallization,† accessed 6 Sept 2010). After it was recystallized, the solid was filtered again in a pre-weighed filter paper. The filter paper used in filtering the solid weighed 1. 0349  ± 0. 0002 g. The mass of the dried product and the filter paper was 1. 3610  ± 0. 0002 g; this means that 0. 3261  ± 0. 0003 g was synthesized. Theoretically, with methyl salicylate as the limiting reagent, the mass of salicylic acid should be 0. 5400 g. Computing for the %yield, would give 61. 0%. In the determination of the melting point, the observed range of the melting point was 150-156 °C. Comparing with the theoretical value, 161 °C, the relative error lies within the range 3. 11-6. 83%. Therefore, the synthesized salicylic acid has a high purity as exhibited by the magnitude of the relative error. This could justify the %yield given that recrystallization might have caused a loss of material due to the increase of the number of steps involved. It should be noted that in organic synthesis, steps leading to the target molecule do not give 100% yield, hence, increasing the number of steps would decrease the %yield. Aside from that, the low yield could be attributed to the accidental rapid cooling that occurred during the recrystallization process. In a titration curve, there are three important regions: pre-equivalence point, equivalence point, and post-equivalence point. For the titration of salicylic acid with NaOH, the pre-equivalence point is characterized by the dependence of pH on the concentration of salicylic acid. Let salicylic acid be HA; prior to addition of the base, the pH can be calculated by the concentration of HA and its acid dissociation constant, Ka. When the base is added, HA reacts with the hydroxide ion (OH– ) according to the Eq. 4 stated above. Therefore, one has a buffer solution comprised of salicylic acid and salicylate. At equivalence point, all of the acid has been converted into its conjugate base. This base will hydrolyze with water through the reaction A– + H2O > HA + OH– (6) reforming a small portion of the acid. At the equivalence point, the slope of the titration curve is at its steepest. The pH at this point is dependent upon the conjugate base formed and its base dissociation constant, Kb. Beyond the equivalence point, the post-equivalence point, the pH is dependent on the concentration of the excess titrant added. This is because the contribution of the conjugate base is very small and, therefore, negligible compared to that of sodium hydroxide. However, salicylate is still the dominant species of salicylic acid present in solution. A distinction between equivalence point and endpoint should be established when titrating. Skoog, (2004), states that the equivalence point is the point in titration where the amount of titrant added is chemically equivalent to that of the analyte in solution. The endpoint is a point during titration wherein an observable change signals that the amount of titrant added is chemically equivalent with that of the analyte. The endpoint may not necessarily coincide with the equivalence point, especially in neutralization titrations. It may come earlier or later than the equivalence point, depending on the indicator used. This difference pf volume at equivalent and endpoint is known as titration error. In potentiometric titration, no chemical indicator is required. Instead, the endpoint is characterized by the drastic change in pX, measured by the electrode. X may be H3O+, OH–, a cation or anion, or any substance participating in the titrimetric reaction (Day and Underwood, 1991). In this case, the volume of titrant that contributes to the greatest change in pH is the volume required to completely titrate the salicylic acid in solution. Thus, the increments of addition of titrant are narrowed down as the equivalence point is reached because that way, the equivalence point will not be missed. Aside from that, the exact volume of titrant required for complete reaction of the analyte would be detected. Prior to titration and dilution with water, the salicylic acid was dissolved with a minimal amount of 95% ethanol. Salicylic acid is sparingly soluble in water, a polar solvent that can hydrogen-bond with solutes that can hydrogen-bond with its molecules. This is due to the acid having more than 6 carbons increasing its non-polarity, although it has oxygen that can form hydrogen bonds with water (McMurry, 2004). Adding ethanol reduces the polarity of the solvent, facilitating dissolution of the acid. It was noted that some of the acid reprecipitated upon addition of water. Thus, a minimum amount of 95% ethanol was again added to dissolve the acid. In the experiment, the electrode was also not lowered while the bar was spinning as air bubbles would adhere on its surface causing an error in the measurement of pH. Constant stirring is important in potentiometric titrations, as in other types of titrimetric analyses. Stirring is done because it will cause the titrant to react not just with the surface of the analyte where it dropped but with the entirety of the analyte solution. This way, the reaction will go to completion and minimal error will be observed. The volumes used for standardization of NaOH with KHP as primary standard are tabulated in Table 2 in the Appendix. Standardization of sodium hydroxide gave 0. 04633 M NaOH. This value was used in the determination of the percentage of purity (%purity) of the salicylic acid sample. For the determination of the equivalence point volume, three plots were done for each trial. The first plot is the graph between pH vs. volume of titrant. The second is the first derivative plot with which ? pH/? V was plotted against V’, where ? pH and ? V are the change in pH and the volume added between two consecutive readings, respectively, and V’ is the average volume between two consecutive readings. The third plot is the second derivative plot between ? 2pH/? V2 and V†. The ordinate of the graph, ? 2pH/? V2, was obtained by taking the quotient of the difference between two consecutive readings of ? pH/? V, and ? V, whereas V† is the average of the two consecutive readings of V’. Only two trials were done because of the inadequacy of the time. The graphs for the first trial are: a) (b) (c) Fig. 7. Titration Curves for the First Trial. (a) pH vs Vtitrant; (b) ? pH/? V vs V’; (c) ? 2pH/? V2 vs V† MNaOHVNaOH at eq ptFWsalicylic acid Gsample The graph for the second trial may be found at the Appendix. Either of the three graphs of Figs. 7 and 8 may be used in the determination of %purity for each trial. The equation used for determining the %pu rity, specifically for this experiment is %purity = x 100 (7) Thus, the volume of titrant used at equivalence point is required for the calculation. The interpolated values of the volume at equivalence point are tabulated in Table 3 in the Appendix. Calculation of the mean %purity is 101. 7%, having an error of 1. 7%, as the theoretical value is 100. 0%. The pKa is based on the pH at half-equivalence point by virtue of the derivation of Eq. 3. Onle Figs. 7a and 8a may be used for the determination of pKa as the other four do not directly give the pH at each point. The interpolated values for the pH at half-equivalence point is tabulated at Table 3 in the Appendix. The experimental pKa is 2. 865. Therefore, the Ka of the acid, given Ka = –log[Ka] (7) or Ka = 10–pKa (8) is 1. 3646 x 10–3. The theoretical pKa is equal to 2. 98. Thus, the pKa value gave rise to a 3. 86% error. Statistical analysis of the results shows the following results: Table 1. Statistical Analysis of the Results | Range| Standard Deviation| %purity| 15. 7%| 11. 1%| pKa| 0. 21| 0. 148| | Relative Standard Deviation (RSD), ppt| Confidence Int ervals (95% confidence)| %purity| 109. 1| 101. 7  ± 99. 7 %| pKa| 51. 8| 2. 865  ± 1. 334| The RSD of %purity is relatively large such that the values have low precision. Aside from that, the confidence intervals for the mean is also large such that it almost has the same order of magnitude as that of the mean. This means that the mean exhibits very low accuracy. With regards to the pKa, the RSD showed a low value, only 51. 8 ppt, implying high precision amongst the values. On the other hand, the mean value shows low accuracy because of the magnitude of the confidence intervals. These errors could be attributed to the number of trials. Due to inadequate time, the group was only able to do 2 trials, one less than the prescribed number of trials. CONCLUSIONS The experiment aimed at synthesizing salicylic acid from methyl salicylate and determining the acid dissociation constant Ka of the acid along with its purity. Organic synthesis provided a 61% yield of the acid, a relatively low yield. However, the purity of the acid can be classified as high due to the observed melting point range’s precision with the theoretical one; the %differenceis only 3. 11-6. 38%. The results of the potentiometric titration show that the salicylic acid used was 101. 7% pure, a value greater than the purity, which is 100%. The Ka, expressed as pKa, obtained was 2. 865, 0. 035 units less than the theoretical value, which is 2. 98. Though the %differences are low, the accuracy of the computed values is questionable given that the confidence intervals for the %purity and pKa are  ± 99. 7 and  ± 1. 334, respectively. These errors can be attributed to the number of trials done, which is two, due to the slow stabilization of the pH meter readings that resulted in a long period of titration. Thus, it can be concluded that potentiometric titration is an effective way of determining the acid dissociation constant of a sample. It is recommended that a better pH meter be used in the measurement of the pH and that solutions used be titrated immediately. REFERENCES [1] Day, R. A. and A. L. Underwood. (1991). Quantitative Analysis. Sixth Edition. Prentice Hall, Inc. , USA. [2] â€Å"Experiment 3: Synthesis of Salicylic Acid from Oil of Wintergreen (Methyl Salicylate). † Laboratory Reference Manual Chemistry 201/202. Reed College. Accessed 6 September 2010 ;http://academic. reed. edu/chemistry/alan/ 201_202/lab_manual/Expt_salicylic_acid/background. html; [3] McMurry, J. (2004). Organic Chemistry. Sixth Edition. Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning, CA, USA. [4] †Recrystallization. † University of Massachussetts. Accessed 6 September 2010 ;http:// www. chem. umass. edu/~samal/269/ cryst1. pdf; [5] Skoog, D. A. , D. M. West, F. J. Holler, S. R. Crouch. (2004). Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry. Eighth Edition. Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning, CA, USA. APPENDIX Gfilter paper = 1. 0349  ± 0. 0002 g Gfilter paper and dried product = 1. 3610  ± 0. 0002 g Gdried product = 0. 3261  ± 0. 0003 g %yield = 61. 0% Observed melting point range: 150-156 °C %difference = 3. 11-6. 83% 1 ° standard used;: potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) purity = 99. 95% Table 2. Standardization of NaOH Trial| Mass of KHP, g| Vtitrant, mL| Molarity, M| 1| 0. 2030| 21. 30| 0. 04664| 2| 0. 2175| 23. 00| 0. 04628| 3| 0. 2043| 21. 70| 0. 04608| Average Molarity, M| 0. 04633| Table 3. Sample Analysis Trial| Gsalicylic acid, g| Vtitrant at eq. pt. , mL| % purity| pH at half-eq. pt. (pKa)| 1| 0. 11 25| 16. 50| 93. 86| 2. 76| 2| 0. 1031| 17. 65| 109. 6| 2. 97| 3| -| -| -| -| Average pKa = 2. 865 Average %purity = 101. 7% Plot of the Second Trial: (a) (b) (c) Fig. 8. Titration Curves for the Second Trial. (a) pH vs Vtitrant; (b) ? pH/? V vs V’; (c) ? 2pH/? V2 vs V†